Luhmann: System as Difference

Luhmann, N. 2006. System as difference. Organization 13, no. 1: 37.

There are three movements in system theory: the study of closed systems, the move to open systems and finally to self-referential systems. The move from closed to open took into consideration the impact of environment on system. The article touches on Parson's understanding of boundary maintenance, where the system was not an "essence" but rather a process of establishing an outside and an inside. What about the more radical understanding of systems? "Now one can say: a system is the difference between system and environment" (38).

"I thus begin with the claim that a system is difference-the difference between system and environment" (38).

Theories on differentiation are explored, and Luhmann settles on those of George Spencer Brown. These theories involve a mark, which represents a distinction. Luhmann describes these as marks on a paper. There are laws. The "law of calling" states that, "...if I repeat the same distinction (the same mark) several times, then the value of the repeated distinctions taken together is equal to the value of one single distinction" (41). The "Law of Crossing". "A mark can be crossed within the boundary it marks and thus, as it were, be negated. This means that a second distinction can be applied to the first one in such a manner that the original distinction is cancelled" (41-2). The mark of Spencer Brown is a 90 degree angle, a vertical line connected to a horizontal line.

The third concept introduced was originally introduced by Kauffman (1987) and it is an arrow that has been bent to become a self-referential circle.

The distinction has two parts: "...namely the distinction proper, marked by the vertical line, and the indication, marked by the horizontal line" (44).

"...the first point that we enter under the heading 'applications to systems theory' is: a system is a form with two sides" (46).

"Let me summarize these two points once again. The first statement concerns the analysis of form: a system is a difference. The second statement says that a system only needs one single operation, one single type of operation, in order to reproduce the difference between system and environment if the system is to continue to exist...In the case of the social system, we have identified communication as this type of operation. Communication is connected to communication" (48).